Side effects of therapeutic opioids. Reproduced with permission from Boland et al 33
| System | Effects |
|---|---|
| Gastrointestinal | Constipation, xerostomia, nausea and vomiting, gastro-oesophageal reflux |
| Neurological | Delirium, hallucinations, sedation, myoclonus, hyperalgesia, seizures, headaches |
| Cardiovascular | Bradycardia, hypotension |
| Pulmonary | Respiratory depression, non-cardiogenic pulmonary oedema |
| Urological | Urinary retention, altered renal function |
| Endocrinological | Hypogonadism, sexual dysfunction, osteoporosis |
| Immune | T cell, natural killer (NK) cell, neutrophil and monocyte dysfunction, cytokine dysregulation (clinical effect unknown) |