Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Adolescents’ Electronic Media Use at Night, Sleep Disturbance, and Depressive Symptoms in the Smartphone Age

  • Empirical Research
  • Published:
Journal of Youth and Adolescence Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Adolescence is a time of increasing vulnerability for poor mental health, including depression. Sleep disturbance is an important risk factor for the development of depression during adolescence. Excessive electronic media use at night is a risk factor for both adolescents’ sleep disturbance and depression. To better understand the interplay between sleep, depressive symptoms, and electronic media use at night, this study examined changes in adolescents’ electronic media use at night and sleep associated with smartphone ownership. Also examined was whether sleep disturbance mediated the relationship between electronic media use at night and depressive symptoms. 362 adolescents (12–17 year olds, M = 14.8, SD = 1.3; 44.8 % female) were included and completed questionnaires assessing sleep disturbance (short sleep duration and sleep difficulties) and depressive symptoms. Further, participants reported on their electronic media use in bed before sleep such as frequency of watching TV or movies, playing video games, talking or text messaging on the mobile phone, and spending time online. Smartphone ownership was related to more electronic media use in bed before sleep, particularly calling/sending messages and spending time online compared to adolescents with a conventional mobile phone. Smartphone ownership was also related to later bedtimes while it was unrelated to sleep disturbance and symptoms of depression. Sleep disturbance partially mediated the relationship between electronic media use in bed before sleep and symptoms of depression. Electronic media use was negatively related with sleep duration and positively with sleep difficulties, which in turn were related to depressive symptoms. Sleep difficulties were the more important mediator than sleep duration. The results of this study suggest that adolescents might benefit from education regarding sleep hygiene and the risks of electronic media use at night.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adams, S. K., & Kisler, T. S. (2013). Sleep quality as a mediator between technology-related sleep quality, depression, and anxiety. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 16, 25–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, London: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bastien, C. H., Vallières, A., & Morin, C. M. (2001). Validation of the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) as an outcome measure for insomnia research. Sleep Medicine, 2, 297–307.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baum, K. T., Desai, A., Field, J., Miller, L. E., Rausch, J., & Beebe, D. W. (2014). Sleep restriction worsens mood and emotion regulation in adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 180–190.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brunborg, G. S., Mentzoni, R. A., Molde, H., Myrseth, H., Skouveroe, K. J. M., Bjorvatn, B., et al. (2011). The relationship between media use in the bedroom, sleep habits and symptoms of insomnia. Journal of Sleep Research, 20, 569–575.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cain, N., & Gradisar, M. (2010). Electronic media use and sleep in school-aged children and adolescents: A review. Sleep Medicine, 11, 735–742.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cajochen, C., Frey, S., Anders, D., Späti, J., Bues, M., Pross, A., et al. (2011). Evening exposure to a light-emitting diodes (LED)-backlit computer screen affects circadian physiology and cognitive performance. Journal of Applied Physiology, 110, 1432–1438.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cortese, S., Brown, T. E., Corkum, P., Gruber, R., O’Brien, L. M., Stein, M., et al. (2013). Assessment and management of sleep problems in youths with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 784–796.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crowley, S. J., Acebo, C., & Carskadon, M. A. (2007). Sleep, circadian rhythms, and delayed phase in adolescence. Sleep Medicine, 8, 602–612.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dagys, N., McGlinchey, E. L., Talbot, L. S., Kaplan, K. A., Dahl, R. E., & Harvey, A. G. (2012). Double trouble? The effects of sleep deprivation and chronotype on adolescent affect. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 660–667.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dollman, J., Ridley, K., Olds, T., & Lowe, E. (2007). Trends in the duration of school-day sleep among 10- to 15-year-old South Australians between 1985 and 2004. Acta Paediatrica, 96, 1011–1014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dworak, M., Schierl, T., Bruns, T., & Strüder, H. K. (2007). Impact of singular excessive computer game and television exposure on sleep patterns and memory performance of school-aged children. Pediatrics, 120, 978–985.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eggermont, S., & Van den Bulck, J. (2006). Nodding off or switching off? The use of popular media as a sleep aid in secondary-school children. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 42, 428–433.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fossum, I. N., Nordnes, L. T., Storemark, S. S., Bjorvatn, B., & Pallesen, S. (2014). The association between use of electronic media in bed before going to sleep and insomnia symptoms, daytime sleepiness, morningness, and chronotype. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 12, 343–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gaina, A., Sekine, M., Kanayama, H., Sengoku, K., Yamagami, T., & Kagamimori, S. (2005). Short-long sleep latency and associated factors in Japanese junior high school children. Sleep and Biological Rhythms, 3, 162–165.

  • Gerber, M., Brand, S., Holsboer-Trachsler, E., & Pühse, U. (2010). Fitness and exercise as correlates of sleep complaints: Is it all in our minds? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42, 893–901.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., & Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 128–140.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Harada, T., Morisane, H., & Takeuchi, H. (2002). Effect of daytime light conditions on sleep habits and morningness–eveningness preference of Japanese students aged 12–15 years. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 56, 225–226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hautzinger, M., & Bailer, M. (1993). Allgemeine Depressions Skala. Manual. Göttingen: Beltz Test GmbH.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heath, M., Sutherland, C., Bartel, K., Gradisar, M., Williamson, P., Lovato, N., et al. (2014). Does one hour of bright or short-wavelength filtered tablet screenlight have a meaningful effect on adolescents’ pre-bedtime alertness, sleep, and daytime functioning? Chronobiology International, 31, 496–505.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higuchi, S., Motohashi, Y., Liu, Y., & Maeda, A. (2005). Effects of playing a computer game using a bright display on presleep physiological variables, sleep latency, slow wave sleep and REM sleep. Journal of Sleep Research, 14, 267–273.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iglowstein, I., Jenni, O. G., Molinari, L., & Largo, R. H. (2003). Sleep duration from infancy to adolescence: Reference values and generational trends. Pediatrics, 111, 302–307.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ivarsson, M., Anderson, M., Åkerstedt, T., & Lindblad, F. (2009a). Playing a violent television game affects heart rate variability. Acta Paediatrica, 98, 166–172.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ivarsson, M., Anderson, M., Åkerstedt, T., & Lindblad, F. (2009b). Playing a violent television game does not affect saliva cortisol. Acta Paediatrica, 98, 1052–1053.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ivarsson, M., Anderson, M., Åkerstedt, T., & Lindblad, F. (2013). The effect of violent and nonviolent video games on heart rate variability, sleep, and emotions in adolescents with different violent gaming habits. Psychosomatic Medicine, 75, 390–396.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., & Ries Merikangas, K. (2001). Mood disorders in children and adolescents: An epidemiologic perspective. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 1002–1014.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, D. L., Gradisar, M., Drummond, A., Lovato, N., Wessel, J., Micic, G., et al. (2013). The impact of prolonged violent video-gaming on adolescent sleep: An experimental study. Journal of Sleep Research, 22, 137–143.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kubey, R. W. (1986). Television use in everyday life: Coping with unstructured time. Journal of Communication, 36, 108–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kubiszewski, V., Fontaine, R., Rusch, E., & Hazouard, E. (2013). Association between electronic media use and sleep habits: An eight-day follow-up study. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth,. doi:10.1080/02673843.2012.751039.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemola, S., Brand, S., Vogler, N., Perkinson-Gloor, N., Allemand, M., & Grob, A. (2011). Habitual computer game playing at night is related to depressive symptoms. Personality and Individual Differences, 51, 117–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lemola, S., Ledermann, T., & Friedman, E. M. (2013). Variability of sleep duration is related to subjective sleep quality and subjective well-being: An actigraphy study. PLoS ONE, 8, e71292.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lemola, S., Schwarz, B., & Siffert, A. (2012). Interparental conflict and early adolescents’ aggression: Is irregular sleep a vulnerability factor? Journal of Adolescence, 35, 97–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewinsohn, P. M., Hops, H., Roberts, R. E., Seeley, J. R., & Andrews, J. A. (1993). Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-R disorders in high school students. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 133.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, S., Jin, X., Wu, S., Jiang, F., Yan, C., & Shen, X. (2007). The impact of media use on sleep patterns and sleep disorders among school-aged children in China. Sleep, 30, 361–367.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovato, N., & Gradisar, M. (2014). A meta-analysis and model of the relationship between sleep and depression in adolescents. Recommendations for future research and clinical practice. Sleep Medicine Reviews. doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2014.03.006.

  • Lui, X., Buysse, D. J., Gentzler, A. L., Kiss, E., Mayer, L., Kepornai, K., et al. (2007). Insomnia and hypersomnia associated with phenomenology and comorbidity in childhood depression. Sleep, 30, 83–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGlinchey, E. L., Talbot, L. S., Chang, K. H., Kaplan, K. A., Dahl, R. E., & Harvey, A. G. (2011). The effect of sleep deprivation on vocal expression of emotion in adolescents and adults. Sleep, 34, 1233.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Medienpädagogischer Forschungsverbund Südwest (2013). JIM 2013. Jugend, Information, (Multi-) Media. Basisstudie zum Medienumgang 12- Bis 19-Jähriger in Deutschland.

  • Munezawa, T., Kaneita, Y., Osaki, Y., Kanda, H., Minowa, M., Suzuki, K., et al. (2011). The association between use of mobile phones after lights out and sleep disturbances among Japanese adolescents: A nationwide cross-sectional survey. Sleep, 34, 1013–1020.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • National Sleep Foundation. (2006). Sleep in America poll. Washington, DC: National Sleep Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • National Sleep Foundation. (2011). Sleep in America poll. Exploring connections with communications technology use and sleep. National Sleep Foundation: Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oshima, N., Nishida, A., Shimodera, S., Tochigi, M., Ando, S., Yamasaki, S., et al. (2012). The suicidal feelings, self-injury, and mobile phone use after lights out in adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 37, 1023–1030.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perkinson-Gloor, N., Lemola, S., & Grob, A. (2013). Sleep duration, positive attitude toward life, and academic achievement: The role of daytime tiredness, behavioral persistence, and school start times. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 311–318.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prezza, M., Pacilli, M. G., & Dinelli, S. (2004). Loneliness and new technologies in a group of Roman adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 20, 691–709.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Primack, B. A., Swanier, B., Georgiopoulos, A. M., Land, S. R., & Fine, M. J. (2009). Association between media use in adolescence and depression in young adulthood: A longitudinal study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 181–188.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Punamäki, R. L., Wallenius, M., Nygård, C. H., Saarni, L., & Rimpelä, A. (2007). Use of information and communication technology (ICT) and perceived health in adolescence: The role of sleeping habits and waking-time tiredness. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 569–585.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rideout, V. J., Foehr, U. G., & Roberts, D. F. (2010). Generation M 2 : Media in the lives of 8- to 18-year-olds. Menlo Park: Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Short, M. A., Gradisar, M., Lack, L. C., Wright, H. R., & Dohnt, H. (2013). The sleep patterns and well-being of Australian adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 36, 103–110.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A. (2013). Smartphone ownership—2013 update. Washington, DC: Pew Research Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Söderqvist, F., Carlberg, M., & Hardell, L. (2008). Use of wireless telephones and self-reported health symptoms: A population-based study among Swedish adolescents aged 15–19 years. Environmental Health, 7, 18.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Talbot, L. S., McGlinchey, E. L., Kaplan, K. A., Dahl, R. E., & Harvey, A. G. (2010). Sleep deprivation in adolescents and adults: Changes in affect. Emotion, 10, 831–841.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomée, S., Härenstam, A., & Hagberg, M. (2011). Mobile phone use and stress, sleep disturbances, and symptoms of depression among young adults-a prospective cohort study. BMC Public Health, 11, 66.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van den Bulck, J. (2003). Text messaging as a cause of sleep interruption in adolescents, evidence from a cross-sectional study. Journal of Sleep Research, 12, 263.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van den Bulck, J. (2004). Television viewing, computer game playing, and internet use and self-reported time to bed and time out of bed in secondary-school children. Sleep, 27, 101–104.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van den Bulck, J. (2007). Adolescent use of mobile phones for calling and for sending text messages after lights out: Results from a prospective cohort study with a one-year follow-up. Sleep, 30, 1220–1223.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, E., Gradisar, M., Dohnt, H., Lovato, N., & Douglas, P. (2010). The effect of presleep video-game playing on adolescent sleep. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine, 6, 184–189.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Willemse, I., Waller, G., Süss, D., Genner, S., & Huber, A.-L. (2012). JAMES – Jugend, Aktivitäten, Medien – Erhebung Schweiz. Zürich: Zürcher Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wood, A. W., Loughran, S. P., & Stough, C. (2006). Does evening exposure to mobile phone radiation affect subsequent melatonin production? International Journal of Radiation Biology, 82, 69–76.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yen, C. F., Ko, C. H., Yen, J. Y., & Cheng, C. P. (2008). The multidimensional correlates associated with short nocturnal sleep duration and subjective insomnia among Taiwanese adolescents. Sleep, 31, 1515.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoo, S. S., Gujar, N., Hu, P., Jolesz, F. A., & Walker, M. P. (2007). The human emotional brain without sleep—a prefrontal amygdala disconnect. Current Biology, 17, 877–878.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The study was supported by the Stiftung Suzanne und Hans Biäsch zur Förderung der Angewandten Psychologie. The authors would like to thank all the participating schools, parents, and adolescents who agreed to participate in the present study.

Author contributions

SL conceived of the study, participated in its design and coordination, performed the statistical analysis, and drafted the manuscript; NPG participated in the design and coordination of the study, performed the measurement, and helped to draft the manuscript; SB participated in the design and interpretation of the data; JKD participated in the design and interpretation of the data; AG participated in the design and interpretation of the data. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, University of Basel, Missionsstrasse 62, 4055, Basel, Switzerland

    Sakari Lemola, Nadine Perkinson-Gloor & Alexander Grob

  2. Center for Affective, Stress and Sleep Disorders, Psychiatric Clinics of the University of Basel, Wilhelm Klein-Strasse 27, 4012, Basel, Switzerland

    Serge Brand

  3. Division of Sport Science, Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

    Serge Brand

  4. Department of Paediatric Endocrinology, Dr. von Hauner Children’s Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University, Geschwister-Scholl-Platz 1, 80539, Munich, Germany

    Julia F. Dewald-Kaufmann

Authors
  1. Sakari Lemola
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Nadine Perkinson-Gloor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Serge Brand
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Julia F. Dewald-Kaufmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Alexander Grob
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sakari Lemola.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Lemola, S., Perkinson-Gloor, N., Brand, S. et al. Adolescents’ Electronic Media Use at Night, Sleep Disturbance, and Depressive Symptoms in the Smartphone Age. J Youth Adolescence 44, 405–418 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0176-x

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0176-x

Keywords

Search

Navigation